Disproportionate Representation of African American Students in Special Education Essay

Abstract In 2011 there is still disproportionate representation of African American Students in special education classes. This can be defined as conflict in the education environment because, government legislation mandates that No child be left behind, yet African American students, males in particular, are disproportionately being just that, left behind. The purpose of this study is to discuss disproportionate representation. What it means and who it affects most will be identified. Contributing factors such as socioeconomic status and race and ethnicity will also be discussed. Possible solutions in the form of equity and early intervention will be discussed as well. Lastly with these factors identified, it is the hope that feasible and probable solutions can be reached or at least recommended. Review of Literature For more than 40 years the topic of Disproportionate representation has been addressed by scholars. The data collected has been qualitative and quantitative. According to Bollmer, Bethel, Garrison-Morgen, and Brauen â€Å"The issue of disproportionate identification and placement of racial/ethnic minorities in special education has been investigated extensively (Bollmer, Bethel, Garrison-Mogren, & Brauen, 2007). † They go on to share that the risk ratio, which is used to compare one racial/ethnic groups likelihood of receiving special education and related services to all other students is one of the most useful tools in this research (Bollmer, Bethel, Garrison-Mogren, & Brauen, 2007). Sometimes referred to as disproportionality, disproportionate representation covers both over and underrepresentation. Overrepresentation happens when the percentage of students from one group is larger than expected based on their numbers in the general population. Underrepresentation is occurring when a specific group of students are involved at a lower rate than their numbers in the general population. According to Beratan â€Å"The disproportionate representation of minority students in special education is as clear of a racist outcome as one can find. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEA) formally recognizes such disproportionate representation as a problem in special education (Beratan, 2008). † He goes on to share the following thoughts and statistics: A) Greater efforts are needed to prevent the intensification of problems connected with mislabeling and high dropout rates among minority children with disabilities. B) More minority children continue to be served in special education than would be expected from the percentage of minority students in the general school population. C) African-American children are identified as having mental retardation and emotional disturbance at rates greater than their White counterparts. D) In the 1998-1999 school year, African-American children represented just 14. 8 percent of the population aged 6 through 21, but comprised 20. 2 percent of all children with disabilities. E) Studies have found that schools with predominately White students and teachers have placed disproportionately high numbers of their minority students into special education (Beratan, 2008). Disproportionate representation not only speaks to the overrepresentation of African-American students labeled as learning disabled, but also to the gross lack of African-American students being labeled gifted. Bonner and Jennings share â€Å"According to the literature, African American males have been disproportionately place in special education classrooms and underrepresented in gifted and talented programs (Fred A. Bonner I. M. , 2007). † Bonner and Jennings go on to say that â€Å"The story of the African American male in gifted and talented programs is one of widespread underrepresentation (Fred A. Bonner I. M. , 2007). † Bonner and Jennings further share that lack of instructor referrals, substandard performance on standardized norm-referenced test scores and student and family choice contributed to the underrepresentation of African American males in gifted programs (Fred A. Bonner I. M. , 2007). The  authors continue to expound on this phenomenon by stating â€Å"Due to the potential for underachievement among African American students in first, second, and third grade, a time in which most identification processes for these programs are implemented, these students often go unidentified (Fred A. Bonner I. M. , 2007). † Artiles and Bal maintain that African American males and Native American students appear to be the most affected groups at the national level (Artiles & Bal, 2008). While disproportionate representation has touched all minority groups, African American males in particular have continually been identified as the most over represented population in Special education. Several factors are said to contribute to the disproportionate representation of minority students in Special Education. Yolanda Anyon shares: Barton and Tomlinson (1981) argue that the identification of students with learning disabilities and subsequent placement in special education is a form of social control to minimize problem behaviors in mainstream classrooms. Other researchers have documented that teachers and principals refer children for special needs assessment who are causing the biggest problems in the classroom be it passivity, failure to learn material or aggressiveness (Anyon, 2009). She further goes on to share â€Å"in this way, special education primarily serves social control functions in schools as it legitimizes the removal of â€Å"deviant† students from regular classrooms (Anyon, 2009). † Socioeconomic status is said to increase the likelihood that student will be placed in special education. It is also said that race and ethnicity of students can be a large variable that causes excessive amounts of students of color to be referred and placed in special education. Skiba and fellow scholars share: Among the most longstanding and intransigent issues in the field, the disproportionate representation of minority students in special education programs has its roots in a long history of educational segregation and discrimination. Although national estimates of disproportionality have been consistent over time, state and local estimates may show varying patterns of disproportionality. A number of factors may contribute to disproportionality, including test bias, poverty, special education processes, inequity in general education, issues of behavior management, and cultural mismatch/cultural reproduction (Skiba, et al. , 2008). They further go on to say that â€Å"special education was born out of, and owes a debt to the civil rights movement†, alluding to the fact that both the inspiration for and the strategies used by those whose work resulted in the initial national special education legislation came from the civil rights movement (Skiba, et al., 2008). They also maintain that â€Å"concerns about racial inequity were central to litigation that led to the promulgation of the first special education legislation (Individuals With Disabilities Education Act, IDEA) (Skiba, et al. , 2008). The scholars aptly point out the irony of racial disparity rates of special education service remaining one of the key indicators of inequity in our national educational system (Skiba, et al. , 2008). An additional contributing factor that they share is â€Å"A second factor that might contribute to a disproportionate rate of representation in special education among students of color are sociodemographic factors associated with economic disadvantage (Skiba, et al. , 2008). Skiba, et al, give this insight into the role of poverty in disproportionate representation: In order to directly assess the contribution of poverty to the disproportionate representation of African American students in special education, Skiba et al.(2005) studied the relationship of special education enrollment, race, socioeconomic and demographic factors, and test score outcomes in a sample of 295 school districts in a Midwestern state. Across ordinary least squares and logistic regression equations, poverty made a weak, inconsistent, and often counter-intuitive contribution to the prediction of disproportionality across a number of disability categories (Skiba, et al. , 2008). While there are no definitive causes of the issue of disproportionate representation the above named ones come up in study after study which lends ample credence to them as real and possibly surmountable issues. â€Å"It might well be expected that the students whose educational opportunities are limited will be more likely to be referred for special education services (Skiba, et al. , 2008). Another point expressed by Skiba and fellow scholars is: Of the possible links between general education practices and special education disproportionality, however, only the proportion of culturally consonant teachers in the teaching force has been directly investigaed. Serwatka, Derring and Grant (1995) found that as the percentage of African American teachers increased, overrepresentation of African American student in the emotionally distrubed category decreased. Similarly, in a cross-state comparison, Ladner and Hammons (2001) found that the discrepancy of African American and white rates of eligibility for special education rose in direct proportion to the percentage of the teaching force that was White, especially in districts with a White percentage of more than 60% (Skiba, et al., 2008). Just as there are no definitive causes identified, there are not any fool proof solutions laid out for correcting the issue of disproportionate representation. There are varying thoughts about strategies such as the following: If disproportionality in special education is multiply determined, no single intervention strategy can be universally relied on to reduce racial disparity. Rather, complex causality clearly suggests the need for comprehensive and multifaceted assessment and intervention plans. In particular, the possibility that the determinants of disproportionality are locale-specific suggests that remediation plans must be driven by local needs assessment capable of identifying unique local patterns (Skiba, et al. , 2008). Early intervention approaches are said to possibly reduce disparities to the level that economic disadvantage is at work (Skiba, et al. , 2008). â€Å"Early intervention would not be expected to address systemic failures or bias and would hence fail to address disproportionality that is due to institutional inequity (Skiba, et al. , 2008). † Researchers are beginning to look at the problem of disproportionate representation within the arena of equity studies (Artiles & Bal, 2008). According to the authors â€Å"researchers, practitioners, and policy makers continue to debate this problem and critical questions remain unanswered (Artiles & Bal, 2008). They go on to question the ability to, or lack thereof, explain how the phenomenon of disproportionate representation consistently remains in existence. Artiles and Bal have raised the following questions â€Å"How have researchers approached the study of this problem, and what are some key gaps in this knowledge base? Does the problem exist in the United States only (Artiles & Bal, 2008)? † These scholars have chosen to conduct research on â€Å"the problem of disproportionate representation as related to equity concerns in educational systems’ responses to difference (Artiles & Bal, 2008). Artiles and Bal share the following about equity in the United States educational system: Educational equity in the United States has aimed historically to enhance access and participation for students considered different. For instance, programs were created to address the educational needs of students who have different ability levels or whose proficiency in English is limited (i. e. , special education and bilingual education, respectively) (Artiles & Bal, 2008). They further go on to share that special education in the United States was created as an answer to some of the issues of difference: The creation of special education was a landmark achievement in the attention of students considered different on the basis of ability. Special education legislation entitled these students to free and appropriate public education, individualized educational programs, due process, and education in the least restrictive environment. Interestingly, an increasingly louder debate has emerged in the past 40 years in the United States about the disproportionate representation of ethnic minority and poor students in special education (Artiles & Bal, 2008). Laws that require states report placement data as it pertains to socioeconomic and racial lines to stay abreast of the problem of disproportionality have been imposed. States and school districts that find themselves faced with the issue of disproportionate representation are required to take remedial actions to address it (Artiles & Bal, 2008). If equity is the solution and special education was designed to level the playing field, why then the issue of disproportionality? This same question is posed by Artiles and Bal, â€Å"But why then is placement in programs that purportedly address equity issues for students with different ability levels considered a problem when it involves other groups of different students, namely, ethnic minorities and poor students (Artiles & Bal, 2008). † While that is a very rational and valid line of questioning, it is far too complicated to answer without factoring in the historical issues that plagued African American students long before special education legislation was implemented. Conclusions Disproportionate representation of African Americans in special education is not a new phenomenon. It has been studied and researched for well over 40 years. Whether it is referred to as disproportionality or disproportionate representation, the terminology covers both over and under representation within a group. While most of the research addresses overrepresentation, there is some out there that speaks to the underrepresentation of African Americans in gifted programs, more specifically African American males. There are no concrete reasons for this phenomenon, but several different factors have been considered contributing factors. Socioeconomic status and race and ethnicity are often the most discussed contributing factors. Special education having roots that stem back to civil rights legislation lends a great amount of credence to the belief that those two factors are probably the leading cause of disproportionate representation. The research shared a very specific accusation of how racism plays a very real part in disproportionate representation. Examples to that end were that studies have found that schools with predominately White students and teachers have placed disproportionately high numbers of their minority students into special education and African-American children are identified as having mental retardation and emotional disturbance at rates greater than their White counterparts. In regards to equity Skiba and fellow scholars give this advice to educators in regards to making effective interventions: Thus, educators and policy makers seeking effective interventions to close special education equity gaps must be willing to openly discuss and address issues of race, ethnicity, gender, class, culture, and language. Moreover, processes chosen to address inequity must have at their core a mechanism to ensure that the perspectives of all stakeholders, especially those of historically marginalized groups who have been the recipients of unequal treatment, are represented when interpreting data on racial and ethnic disparities (Skiba, et al. , 2008). As educators we must take heed to the information shared about disproportionality. Though this information is not new, it must continue to be shared as if it was. While this resarch was specifically about African Americans, other minorities are affected by disproportionate representation. I will be more cognizant of how I determine whether or not to suggest a student be tested for special education services. It is so easy to refer them, before taking the time to investigate the reasons behind the undesireable behavior. Works Cited Anyon, Y. (2009). Social Theories of Learning Disabilities: Understanding Racial Disproportionality in Special Education. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 44-57. Artiles, A. J. , & Bal, A. (2008). The Next Generation of Disproportionality Research Toward a Comparative Model in the Study of Equity in Ability Differences. The Journal of Special Education, 4-14. Beratan, G. D. (2008). The song remains the same: Transposition and the disproportionate representation of minority students in special education. Race, Ethnicity and Education, 337-354. Bollmer, J. , Bethel, J. , Garrison-Mogren, R. , & Brauen, M.(2007). Using the Risk Ratio to Asess Racial/Ethnic Disproportionality in Special Education at the School-District Level. The Journal of Special Education, 186-198. Fred A. Bonner, I. M. (2007). Never Too Young to Lead: Gifted African American Males in Elementary School. Gifted Child Today, 31-35. Skiba, R. J. , Simmons, A. B. , Ritter, S. , Gibb, A. C. , Rausch, M. K. , Cuadrado, J. , et al. (2008). Achieving Equity in Special Education: History, Status, and Current Challenges. Exceptional Children, 264-288.

Public Fiscal Administration Essay

Fiscal Institutions and Fiscal Performance shifts emphasis away from narrow economic factors to more broadly defined political and institutional factors that affect government policy and national debt. This collection brings together new theoretical models, empirical evidence, and a series of in-depth case studies to analyze the effect of political institutions, fiscal regulations, and policy decisions on accumulating deficits. It provides a fascinating overview of the political and economic issues involved and highlights the role of budgetary institutions in the formation of budget deficits. While our roundtable considered differences between two states as points of departure, we believe the principles identified in our exchanges apply to other state environments as well. In fact, a major objective of this paper is to encourage other states to consider these questions in light of their own policies and performance. These are the key questions our roundtable participants suggested that any state should ask as it seeks to improve the performance of its higher education institutions in advancing public priorities. 1. To what extent has a state defined the public purposes it expects higher education institutions to help accomplish? Are the purposes a state seeks to achieve through its colleges and universities clearly articulated? Do institutional leaders and policymakers share a common understanding of those purposes? A first step for any state that seeks to improve the performance of its higher education system is to pose and publicly debate a core set of questions concerning that system: What is the rationale that justifies a state’s spending for institutional appropriation, capital construction, or financial aid? Is that rationale clearly defined? Is it consciously examined, debated, and reaffirmed at regular intervals in the arenas of public policy? Or have the arguments that justify a state’s expenditures for higher education become vestiges of a distant past, subject to differing memories and interpretations? A state needs the political will to set the public agenda-to form ulate clear definitions of the public purposes it expects higher education institutions to help attain. As the needs of society itself evolve, the ends a state seeks to achieve through its colleges and universities can also change. For this reason, the question of higher education’s role in advancing the public weal needs to be  revisited periodically. At the same time, a state needs to assess how well the policies and programs currently in place actually achieve their intended goals. In the absence of such periodic reviews, states tend to increase their expectations of higher education institutions-to add new expectations-without considering how the new expectations relate to those in place from an earlier time. States must also work to maintain a balance between the evolution of their own public purposes on the one hand and the evolution of institutional goals on the other. A state that allows unspoken and implicit priorities to prevail over principles that are publicly debated and affirmed effectively accords more autonomy to institutions in pursuing their own directions. Ultimately, states that do not articulate their purposes may find themselves maintaining institutions for reasons that are increasingly vague and ambiguous. 2. How well do a state’s fiscal appropriation practices align with the mandates of its higher education policies? What combination of policy mandate and incentives is most effective in motivating institutions toward the achievement of public purposes? Providing a rationale and framework for supporting higher education institutions is half the task confronting state policymakers. Through a combination of statutory authority and resource allocation, a state must work to ensure that institutions fulfill the public purposes its policymakers have identified. The authority of educational policy derives from the constitutional power of a state’s elected representatives. While respecting the operational flexibility of higher education institutions, these officials help determine institutional priorities by establishing state policies. Beyond the mandate of policy, however, a state must be willing to appropriate the resources needed to achieve given purposes. A state’s budgetary appropriation to institutions is a most telling statement of public policy with regard to higher education; by the amount and the kind of funding it provides, a state sends an explicit or implicit signal about its priorities for higher education. For reasons beyond its control, a state may sometimes fail to provide sufficient funding for institutions to carry out its public purposes to the extent or at the level of quality it desires. While unforeseen shortfalls in the budget are inevitable in some years, a state that systematically underfunds its higher education system loses some ability to influence institutions in terms of quality or direction. Ultimately, a state and its higher education system need to define what constitutes a reasonable exchange of product for price. While some institutions prefer formula-driven or incremental increases in the funding they receive, public officials have occasionally sought to link a portion of an institution’s funding to the achievement of a particular objective, such as enrollment, retention, or degree completion. A state must exercise caution to ensure that the funding incentives it establishes in fact motivate the behaviors it desires in institutions. The international perspective of our roundtable provided a telling example of the need for policymakers to ensure that the fulfillment of a public purpose falls within the interests of institutions themselves. South Africa, until recently, used the technique of penalizing institutions whose students did not achieve acceptable levels of performance. Rather than spurring institutions to foster heightened achievement in their existing student bodies, this policy often caused higher education institutions to seek higher-achieving students in order to avoid incurring penalty, in effect heightening the barriers to access for many students. The country is now finalizing a new funding system with incentives to institutions that improve the performance of lower-achieving students. Fiscal strategy is not the only means by which a state can influence institutional behavior. If designed carefully, with an awareness of what motivates institutions, however, the alignment of funding with the achievement of public purposes can be an effective means of improving a state’s higher education performance. 3. To what extent do a state’s tuition and financial aid policies contribute to increased higher education participation and completion? The amount of tuition charged at public institutions, in addition to state programs of financial aid and assistance, are central elements of a state’s fiscal policy. It sometimes occurs that a state’s public officials have not formulated an explicit policy regarding tuition, and in such instances, the very lack of specificity constitutes a policy decision. A primary lesson from the AIHEPS research and from experience in many other settings is the importance of need-based programs of financial aid and assistance to foster higher education participation and completion among the most needy. Financial aid is the area in which a state’s higher education policy intersects most substantially with federal programs; the kinds of financial aid a state  makes available in conjunction with Pell Grants and other federal aid programs define the contours of affordability for students in that setting. Both New Jersey and New Mexico exemplify a strong commitment to access, and both take substantial steps to ensure that financial need does not become a barrier to enrolling and completing a degree program in a college or university. In addition to its need-based programs of financial aid, New Mexico’s commitment to access results in a remarkably low tuition at the state’s public institutions of higher education. The experience of many state policy environments makes clear, however, that low tuition in itself does not guarantee access for students. Particularly in sparsely populated settings, where higher education institutions may be a considerable distance from a student’s home, the decision to attend college entails a number of financial commitments that low tuition in itself cannot help a student to meet. Need-based financial aid is a critical element for any state that seeks to enhance the participation of students who have limited financial means. One of the most notable developments during the past several years is the growth in programs that award aid on the basis of academic merit without regard for financial need. Georgia’s merit-based program of financial aid, Helping Outsta nding Pupils Educationally (HOPE), has proven to be a model for similar programs in other states. In New Mexico, the merit-based Lottery Success Scholarship Program has become enormously popular with voters, policymakers, and institutions alike. As with many other aspects of public policy, merit-based programs of financial aid tend to provide greatest benefit to members of the middle class. No elected public official can fail to perceive the political benefit of programs that are popular with the largest block of voters in a state. Merit-based aid programs exemplify a different policy objective from that of providing financial assistance to the most needy. A state’s motivation in providing such aid is to encourage more of its highest-achieving students to remain in the state-first by enrolling in its higher education institutions, and then, ideally, by choosing to live and work in the state after graduation, thus enhancing a state’s educational capital. Merit-based programs have certainly succeeded in attracting more of the highest-achieving students to pursue their baccalaureate degrees in their home state; in doing so, they have relieved many high-achieving, mostly middle-class students and their parents of  substantial costs they might otherwise have incurred in attending institutions out of state. Students of this type tend to have considerable mobility after graduation, however, and it is less clear whether merit-based programs encourage more of them to remain in a state after completing their degrees. Much of the controversy centers on the question of whether a state’s investment in merit-based financial aid occurs at the expense of its commitment to need-based aid. Most of those states that have invested in merit-based programs of aid during the past several years did not have strong historical commitments to need-based aid. In those cases, the introduction of merit-based aid has done no harm to students with greater financial need; in fact, some needy students have benefited because they qualify for the merit-based programs. In states that have begun to blend merit-based with need-based commitments, however, it often appears that the appeal of merit aid has diminished the perception of importance attached to need-based programs. Beyond the obvious political popularity of merit-based aid, a state must ask whether such programs yield a long-term benefit of encouraging more of the best and brightest to remain in the state as workers and citizens. If the answer is no, the question then becomes whether the dollars expended in merit-based programs might be more effectively spent enhancing programs that enable more of those with greatest financial ne ed to attend college. 4. What role does the state interface agency-typically either a higher education governing or coordinating board-play to ensure that a state’s higher education institutions contribute effectively to the achievement of public purposes? To what extent is institutional mission a factor in determining the responsibilities of institutions in fulfilling public purposes? Nearly every state in the United States has one or more agencies that serve as intermediaries between a state’s lawmakers and its higher education institutions. The level of authority vested in a state interface agency varies: some states have a governing board with regulatory authority over public institutions, others a coordinating board that serves in primarily steering and oversight capacities. The notable exception to this rule is the four-year sector in Michigan, which has no formal interface agency. Michigan’s public universities rely on a council of presidents to achieve a unified approach in de aling with the state’s lawmakers. While presidents of four-year universities stand in accord on many issues, each  institution appeals individually to the Legislature and governor in the state’s budget process, and the amount of funding each institution receives is a direct function of its historical allocation, modestly adjusted by lobbying efforts. A state higher education interface agency can help reduce the inherent competition among public colleges and universities. In addition, an effective governing or coordinating board can play a vital role in making a state’s system of higher education more efficient, more successful, and more accountable in terms of educational performance. The interface agency itself must be accountable both to the public purposes a state has defined and to the needs of higher education institutions within the system it serves. An effective interface agency can encourage collaboration among institutions; it can work in behalf of all colleges and universities to influence s tate government; and it can gather and provide information that documents changes in performance. One of the key roles a governing or coordinating board plays is that of providing information that influences decision making both in state government and in individual institutions. The information disseminated by an interface agency can contribute substantially to the effectiveness of the state’s higher education system, helping to sustain the interest of institutional leaders and policymakers in performance. The periodic distribution of comparative data helps sharpen and renew public officials’ understanding of the purposes a state seeks to achieve through its higher education institutions, while also reminding institutional leaders of the criteria that measure an institution’s performance. Indeed, the international perspective of the AIHEPS project makes clear that the presence or absence of information in a given environment is itself a policy issue. One of the major differences between higher education environments in the United States and Mexico is the availability of information for evaluative or strategic purposes. In Mexico, the scarcity of information and the fact that most data are controlled by institutions often impede the work of improving the performance of higher education systems. While the gathering and distribution of information are important functions of an interface agency, these roles in themselves will not ensure improvement in the performance of a state’s higher education system. An interface agency cannot be effective if it is a political weakling; it needs some measure of authority to motivate the behavior of  institutions toward desired ends, whether in the form of incentives or simply the consistent support of sensible decisions by the governor and Legislature. Certainly, the amount of resources available to an interface agency is an important part of the equation; no statewide board can hope to be effective if it lacks sufficient funding and staff. Ideally, the effectiveness of an interface agency rests on its power to influence elected policymakers and to craft policies and incentives that make the achievement of a state’s policy goals fall within the self-interest of institutions themselves. The interface agency often plays a central role in devising appropriate measures of institutional accountability that help to ensure compliance with a state’s policy objectives for higher education. Even though expenditures for higher education now constitute a smaller share of state budgets, state support of higher education has grown in real dollars during the past two decades, and public officials naturally seek to ensure that the dollars invested yield discernible results. In some settings, a state’s drive for institutional accountability has led to confrontations over such matters as faculty productivity or the assessment of student learning. The interface agency plays a critical role in any successful effort to conjoin public officials’ press for accountability with higher education’s traditions of autonomy in the means of fulfilling its educational mission. An interface agency can help create accountability measures that provide a meaningful index of progress in meeting a state’s goals for higher education. It can also ensure that credible reports of performance reach legislators and the general public on a timely basis. A state governing or co ordinating board is by definition an agency that provides both support of and guidance to institutions as they pursue their individual strategic goals. Governing boards of individual colleges and universities can easily become captives of an institution’s own ambitions, advocating those particular interests even at the expense of achieving broader state policy objectives. While affording institutions some measure of protection from the fluctuations of state politics, the interface agency helps ensure that individual institutions evolve in directions that are consistent with state policy goals. One of the issues an interface agency can help address is the degree to which institutional mission should be a factor in the question of accountability to a state’s public purposes.  Successful degree completion, for example, is a goal that has meaning to every higher education institution. But should every institution be held equally accountable to a single graduation rate? Because institutions with different missions may serve different kinds of student populations, holding every institution equally accountable to a particular measure may prove neither efficient nor desirable. At the same time, institutional mission can easily come to reflect an institution’s aspiration to grow in directions that do not meet the greatest public need. Just as a state’s expectations of higher education change over time, mission often becomes a moving target, changing to accommodate the institution’s internally driven goals-such as implementing more selective undergraduate admissions, establishing graduate programs, or expanding sponsored research programs-even if those purposes are fulfilled elsewhere in a state’s higher education system. The interface agency plays a critical role in facilitating a sustained interaction between a state’s policymakers and its higher education institutions. In so doing, it helps ensure the continued strength and adaptability of policies to which all institutions are held accountable. No higher education institution that benefits from public funding should get an automatic â€Å"pass† on its obligation to help fulfill the public agenda, but a state should not expect every institution to achieve particular purposes in the same way. Finally, it is fitting that a state should seek to hold institutions accountable for the â€Å"what† but certainly not the â€Å"how† of achieving public purposes. 5. What steps has a state taken to build the infrastructure and encourage higher education institutions to collaborate-with one another, with K-12 schools, with business and industry-in order to foster the goal of improved preparation as well as economic development? State policymakers play a key role in creating an environment that fosters collaboration between higher education institutions and other agents in areas that effect economic and civic vitality. As major stakeholders, colleges and universities contribute to and depend on the educational and economic well-being of a state’s population. The development of more concerted partnerships between these institutions and K-12 schools is a key element in improving students’ preparation for higher education study-and ultimately in increasing the number of students who pursue postsecondary education. By the same token, higher education’s partnerships with business and industry can contribute  substantially to th e benefits that a higher education confers. States in attractive geographic locations with fair climates can reap an educational and economic advantage simply because they draw many of the best and brightest from other settings. States that do not enjoy this advantage, however, must develop strategies to encourage higher education institutions to work with schools and other agencies, helping to maximize both college participation and the economic benefits higher education provides to a state’s population. Colleges and universities have the capacity to improve both measures by working in conjunction with a state’s primary and secondary schools as their principal supplier of students, as well as with business leaders, who employ substantial numbers of their graduates. A state’s most promising strategy in fostering collaboration is to create a framework and statewide incentives that help coordinate local initiatives. In this, as in other dimensions of achieving a state’s public purposes, the levers of policy can help make collaboration with other stakeholders seem to be in the best interests of higher education institutions themselves. Part of a state’s challenge in promoting collaboration between higher education and K-12 institutions is to overcome substantial cultural barriers that exist between the two domains. Finally, the incentives a state creates for increased collaboration must be built on both sides, so that public schools and higher education institutions find their own interests served by working together. In general, it is community colleges as well as comprehensive universities with strong commitments to training teachers that are most highly attuned to the challenges of K-12 schools, and to the evolving set of skills that business and industry leaders seek in their workforce. It is also true that the more numerous the expectations a state places on its higher education institutions, the easier it becomes for institutions to escape responsibility for those goals they find less conducive to their own ambitions. States must create conditions that make it compelling for higher education institutions to work with K-12 schools in improving students’ preparation for college. Equally important is a state’s role in fostering institutional partnerships with business and industry to help maximize the benefits that higher education confers to a state’s residents. If institutions choose not to participate in the achievement of such purposes, states must devise means of encou raging compliance. A state that lacks the  means or the will to define and pursue its public priorities effectively accords its public institutions open license to pursue goals of their own choosing, with minimal regard to a state’s public purposes.

A Comparison of Democratization Process in China and India

The term â€Å"democracy† first emerged in the societies of ancient Greece where it is meant to be a form of decision-making where the community is allowed to participate, which later on served as the system used for governance (Woolf & Rawcliffe, 2005). Bryce (2009) noted that the term is used to describe the power that is legally bestowed by the people to the government.Likewise, the term â€Å"people† moved farther away from the privileged few and focused more on the entire community. As a result, the consideration for the rights and the voice of the citizens became a central theme in democratic governments.Aside from the political aspects of democracy, the free market structure is also an element that has become inseparable from that of democracy (as cited in Snauwaert, 1993). In the free market system, the government has less control over the affairs of the market and individuals are given the chance to choose among several options (Snauwaert, 1993).In the present day, democracy has become a very popular system of government as the West and other advocates continue to hail it as a suitable form of governing the society. Based on the arguments of Francis Fukuyama, a resolution is reached regarding the best way to organize the political and economic aspects of the society and suggested democracy as the answer.In addition, Fukuyama contends that â€Å"democracy, in the political realm, and markets, in the economic realm, had triumphed over all challengers and were in the process of becoming the universal forms of political and economic organization† (Bova, 2003, p. 243).In history, nations did not immediately employ democracy. Some have taken other paths, such as India and China that experienced the colonial rule and Communist rule, respectively. Both countries have experienced undergoing a process of democratization, which is said to â€Å"[begin] when the principle of citizenship is acknowledged by a regime in certain ways by allowing the opposition to become involved in politics† (Des Forges, Luo, & Wu, 1993, p. 231).In addition, the democratization process proceeds from the distribution of power and responsibilities throughout the community (Des Forges, Luo, & Wu, 1993).From the previous systems of government, India proved that it can undergo the process of democratization and sustain it until 50 years after. On the other hand, China remains a communist state amidst its futile attempts to apply several democratic principles from the West (Central Intelligence Agency [CIA], 2010; He & Feng, 2008).The two countries, China and India, are both Asian countries that are striving hard to apply and implement the concepts of democracy as it is observed from the Western ideals.The interesting experiences of the two nations with regard to the process of democratization serve as the focus of the present paper, which would also highlight the differences and similarities between the experiences of the two nations. In s o doing, emphasis is placed on theDemocratization Process in IndiaNational ProfileIndia is a member of the Southern Asian region and has a total area of 3,165,596 sq km (Oldenburg, 2008). The 7 union territories and 28 states are ruled by a President, who is the head of state, and a Prime Minster, who serves as the head of government (Oldenburg, 2008).The present form of government is Federal Republic and is governed by the Constitution that was amended last 2002 (Oldenburg, 2008). India also has an existing legislature, which is composed of the Lok Sabha (House of the People) and the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) (Oldenburg, 2008). The Judicial branch of the Indian government is headed by the Supreme Court (Oldenburg, 2008).For a lengthy period of time until 1947, India was subjected to British colonial rule (Mishar, 2000). The country gained independence through the Indian Independence Act, which received the Royal Assent on 1947 (Mishra, 2000).The Indian Independence Act served as an important factor in the process of democratization in the country because it gave way for a Provisional government that would later on take the form of a democracy. At the day when the said Act took into effect, Jawaharlal Nehru said that it is a time when â€Å"India discovers herself again,† (as cited in Hukam, 2005, pp. 309-10).In relation to this, it is important to identify the events surrounding before and after the promulgation of the Indian Independence Act in 1947 and the progress towards democracy that was made up to the present time. More specifically, emphasis is placed on the economic and political changes in the country and the actors and elements that allowed for successful democratization.

Qualitative and Quantitative Perspectives in Conducting Research Essay

Qualitative and Quantitative Perspectives in Conducting Research - Essay Example There is a relevant connection that exists between qualitative and quantitative approaches as far as research in social science is concerned and the relationship has been empirically and theoretically demonstrated by many researchers that have dealt with different issues(Ragin, 2008). The recent years have been saturated with widespread debate within the social sciences that is associated with the relative advantages in respect to qualitative and quantitative strategies for research, and the opinions different researchers have vary significantly. There is a section that considers the two methods to be totally independent and in relation to the unconventionalideas, there is a section that prefers to blend both approaches in their research activities. Bryman (1998) advocated an approach that would entail the best parts of both approaches and was therefore of the opinion that both qualitative as well as quantitative approaches should be combined.`According to Niglas (2000), none of the variations that are in existence between quantitative and qualitative methodologies are the form of diametric contradictory practices but instead constitute a continuous scale which qualitative and quantitative research are not arranged in a manner that is basic. Secondly, there still exists quite a good number of researchers that are inclined towards the qualitative approach who take a realist ontological position and quantitative researchers whose ontological position is associated with idealism and relativism that associated with realism.

University of Pennsylvania and its renowned undergraduate programs Personal Statement

University of Pennsylvania and its renowned undergraduate programs - Personal Statement Example They say that the only thing constant is change. It may come to our lives that something or some circumstances changes the way we view ourselves and our surroundings. Being an active participant of the S.A. Model of the United Nations for two consecutive years and my numerous Humanitarian Works both here and abroad like in Mali and Caracas, helped me to realize how fortunate I was from somebody out there. Having a good quality education in preparation for my future career as a professional is one of the highlight of my life so that I could do my very best to become a valuable member of society. The University of Southern California being a world class university will be able to help me realize my full potentials as an individual hoping to make a world a better place to live in for me, my family and for every body. The University of Southern California, being world-renowned in the fields of communication and multimedia technologies, in the same way it has received national acclaim in the US for its ground-breaking community outreach programs, these consequently leads it to one of the US leading research university. And as such, USC will be able to help me fulfill my goals and aspirations. Poverty is one significant concern to me. This is because poverty, lessen numerous opportunities to other people in terms of health, education, employment and housing among others. No matter how industrialized the society you live in, you cannot disregard the fact of poverty in other parts of the globe. And I humbly believe that through education, poverty can be alleviated, if not eradicated. It made me realize how fortunate I am from my contemporaries in other parts of the globe, for I have better opportunities. And since I have these wide array of opportunities, I feel that to be able to become a valuable member of society, it is but necessary to extend a helping out and touch their lives and eventually make a difference. Letter to your first-year roommate at Babson Dear Room mate, Hi there! How are you I do hope your doing perfectly well. I am (state your name), from (state the city where you are currently living). I am a sports minded person and enjoys being with my friends over a hearty meal and lovely conversation. I am into humanitarian work with children among others. I have heard that Babson's pioneering undergraduate curriculum has acquired a leadership award from The Pew Charitable Trusts for taking "bold steps to reshape undergraduate programs. These together with its innovative curriculum and competent academic staff made me choose to enroll as an Economic major in the College. I am so much excited of being a part of this dynamic college. I am looking forward to the wonderful scenery of Wellesley, Massachusetts and I do hope you could help me to interesting places on my first week. Do take care and I will see you soon. Regards, Person number 1. On Boston University Boston University is a private urban research university

(The Budget)Funding and sourcing of London Olympic Games 2012 current Essay

(The Budget)Funding and sourcing of London Olympic Games 2012 current challenges and issues - Essay Example The budget funding and the capital sourcing for the 1948 London Olympic Games was more straightforward than now, as everything was paid for directly by the British taxpayer.1 Besides at that stage less extensive sporting facilities were required as there were fewer sporting events and there were also participants and spectators than expected for the London Olympic Games of 2012. Put simply to be ready for the London Olympic Games of 2012 the British capital has to build new sporting facilities as well as updating its available accommodation, and travel infrastructure. In 2012 it would not be acceptable to house either athletes or spectators in old army barracks to keep costs down as happened in 1948.2 The organisers of the London Olympic Games of 2012 also have to think about extensive security measures as the 7 / 7 attacks demonstrated London’s vulnerability to terrorist attacks.3 Modern Olympic Games have actually needed a great deal of direct capital investment from both the private sector and also the private sector organisations and sectors in order to construct world class sporting facilities alongside suitable accommodation for athletes and spectators as well as effective travel infrastructures. Most of the modern Olympic Games have gone over budgets, even if the majority of construction work was done before the games started. The British government has also had a past record of building projects and various venues that have gone over budget and being late, for instance the Millennium Dome and the Scottish Parliament building.4 Recent Olympic Games such as those in Sydney 2000, Athens 2004, and the latest in Beijing 2008 all managed to boost great sporting facilities besides suitability impressive accommodation and travel infrastructures. These Olympic Games were all very expensive to host and required significant amounts of budget funding and sourcing to be staged effectively.

Sir Richard Branson, Chairman, Virgin Group, Ltd Essay

Sir Richard Branson, Chairman, Virgin Group, Ltd - Essay Example The company has ventured into varied business, and it has more than two hundred conglomerates that operate across the globe. The company has about 50 thousand employees, and it receives approximately 20 billion dollars in annual sales. Many people admire the Virgin brand and Branson always believes that by treating employees effectively, they will become productive; thus attract customers who in turn would reward stakeholders. Branson believes that effective communication and teamwork competences will yield better results. He devotes himself towards motivating and rewarding employees as well listen actively to them in order to create organizational value. Branson employs a mixture of leadership styles in order to improve the organization value; thus achieving organizational goals effectively. First, Branson employs authentic leadership because he is genuine with his work. He is always ready to offer a solution in a genuine way to any employee who approaches him. Hellriegel and Slocum (2010, p. 291) argue that authentic leaders have the highest integrity and are always committed towards improving organization performance. Branson is one of the leaders who are committed towards constructing enduring organizations and  who are  genuine to the company core values. He develops his own leadership styles that are consistent with his personality. For instance, many organizations concentrate in designing innovative brands that meet the expectation of customers and they treat customers as the king in the market. However, Branson does opposite by treating employees first, and the customers follow later. This is because he believes that by motivating employees, they will work hard and become productive; thus meeting the expectations of customers. Therefore, Branson is an authentic leader because he holds on the beliefs he espouses; thus revealing ethical behaviors in business. This is essential because it will lead to successful organizational performance. Secondly, Br anson employs transactional leadership because he pays attention to his subordinates and he cooperates with them through agreements. Transactional leadership styles are among the valuable leadership management styles in an entity. This leadership style acknowledges leadership dynamics and recognizes leaders as being responsible for the actions of their subordinates (Hellriegel and Slocum (2010). In this case, leaders motivate employees through offering them bonuses as a way of motivating them to work hard. Branson focuses on teamwork performance, and he focuses on the supervision roles in an organization. This is essential because a transactional leader is a leader who is focused to keep things alike, but they are not ready to change anything in the future. This leader pays attention to employees or the followers in order to solve any problem that might arise. Branson employs transformational leadership model and this style is of significant benefit in the company. This is because t his leadership style emphasizes on unity and joint effort in creating organization change. Branson encourages employees to work together and introduces a new set of goals that can enable an organization to create change. Transformational style emphasizes on shared values and joint efforts towards increasing performance level (Hellriegel and Slocum 2010, p. 329). Branson works hard in order to solve the problem of each employee, and he always makes sure that he has the answer for every problem.

How children develop their interpersonal skills Essay

How children develop their interpersonal skills - Essay Example Infants may cry to communicate their needs to their parents; they learn that when they cry they are fed and thus carry on with this routine. Eventually, with the correct training and assistance, children will learn that making use of words or expressions to communicate their needs could be their most effective technique (Hersen, 2011). This essay discusses how children develop their interpersonal skills and how digital technologies or electronic devices can be used to enhance children’s learning experience. Nevertheless, interpersonal skills are not confined with social tact like being courteous and well-mannered. Children’s social and interpersonal skills develop as they acquire communication skills. Numerous parents are anxious that their children are deficient in interpersonal or social skills, but this is a misperception in most instances. The essentials of social behavior originate from the emotional area of the brain, which is a vital determinant of morality, compassion, and fellow feeling (Hersen, 2011). Babies usually fret when they hear another baby screaming, for they know that someone is disgruntled. Hence several antecedents of interpersonal skills are perhaps wired to the brain, but experiences also affect the ability of children to recognize, understand, and react to others’ needs (Hersen, 2011). Focusing jointly on something is an early sign of interpersonal skills. Babies who often draw people’s attention to fascinating objects at nine months are more probable to be classified as socially capable at roughly two years. By their first year babies want or prefer people who support or give comfort to other people (Mathieson, 2004). Genuine fellow feeling, the capacity to understand and reflect on the feelings of others, is manifested by age five. In this young age, children exhibit remarkable improvements in self-discipline. Children who have greater self-discipline also manifest greater fellow feeling and more advanced sense of right and

Credit Assessment and Consulting in Rating Agencies Research Paper

Credit Assessment and Consulting in Rating Agencies - Research Paper Example nsulting services whereby debt issuers request rating agencies to direct them on the manner to structure their debt issues with the aim of securing a favorable rating (Crockett, Harris, Mishkin & White, 2004). In such circumstances, the credit-rating agencies are in effect auditing their own work. Moreover, credit-rating agencies may deliver favorable ratings so as acquire extra clients for the ancillary consulting business. Much of the challenges associated with Credit Assessment and Consulting in Rating Agencies relate to the reliability and integrity of ratings. Investors utilize credit ratings that mirror the probability of default to ascertain the creditworthiness of certain debt securities (Langohr & Langohr, 2008). Conflict of interest can yield a decrease in the flow of reliable information centering on either concealment of the information, or dissemination of misleading information (Brooks & Dunn, 2010). This has dire consequences on the value of stakeholder’s benefits. The markets can in some instances ameliorate the impacts of conflicts of interest within financial services firms and cannot always contain the incentives to exploit conflicts of interest. Some of the approaches to remedying conflict of interest encompass: â€Å"leaving it to the market† or letting market forces resolve the conflict by penalizing financial firms that exploit conflict of interest and instituting new institutional means to contain conflict of interest (Brooks & Dunn, 2010). The other approaches encompass regulating for transparency through mandatory disclosure and supervisory oversight. Additional approaches towards remedying conflicts of interest within credit rating agencies encompass separation of functions and socialization of information production. In conclusion, there is a need to enhance accountability of Credit Rating Agencies so as to negate the pitfalls associated with conflict of interest (Werther & Chandler, 2006). Reputation remains one of the key

Frank Too Big Too Ignore Essay Example for Free

Frank Too Big Too Ignore Essay Income Inequality: Too Big to Ignore Summary Robert Frank, a professer at Cornell University, published an article for the New York Times on October 16, 2010. The title of the article was Income Inequality: Too Big to Ignore. In Income Inequality: Too Big to Ignore, Frank argues that there are differences in the social classes of the American people and that it is having a negative effect on our economys growth. Frank explains that middle class citizens are in a struggle to maintain a good financial position. Meanwhile, the upper class citizens are spending copious amounts of money which makes it increasingly more difficult for the middle class to meet their basic needs. He says that the middle class are looking toward upper class citizens, comparing their posesions as well as their financial positions which makes the middle class feel financially unstable. Frank explains that the income gap between the classes are causing distress on marriages of American citizens. He states that divorce rates rise when people are in financial distress. in conjunction with finincial uneasyness, Frank explains that the willingness to ignore infrastructure is an effect as well as the relocation of lower class families to places that are further away from their places of employment. Frank concludes by how the income gap is not only unfair, but that it would be unwise to continue on the current path of income inequality. Connections Frank has a very bleak view of the economic status of America in which he shares with Herbert. One of the main evidences of this point is the comparison of Franks quote in which he states By contrast, during the last three decades, the economy has grown much more slowly, and our infrastructure has fallen into grave disrepair. (580) with Herberts quote It will likely take many years, perhaps a decade or more, to get employment back to a level at which one could fairly say the economy is thriving. (564) In comparison between Frank and Thomas, each author believes that there is something wrong with the system and that the American people need to do something about it. This can be justified within Thomas and Franks articles. Frank states No one dares to argue that rising inequality is required in the name of fairness. So maybe we should just agree that its a bad thing and try to do something about it.(584). Thomas explains We must also understand what got us here and the path that leads upward. (570) Frank can also agree with Brandon King in the fact that America is still repairable. King states If the Great Recession has taught us anything, it is that planning for the future by saving more and enacting policies that sustain economic growth are what will keep the American Dream alive. In comparison, Frank believes that we need to consult the problem in order to repair it.

Impact of IT on Individuals, Communities and Society

Impact of IT on Individuals, Communities and Society Since its inception, IT has had a substantial impact on the world. The ability to access information at the touch of a button has transformed the way we learn. Education and Training have never been the same, before the dawn of the internet. However, all of this is not as amazing as it first seems. Malicious users roam the far reaches of the internet trying to steal peoples bank details, child pornography sites hidden behind proxies and VPNs deep in the dark net, even illegal drug and weapon sales. Online Shopping Online shopping is an amazing invention since its initiation in 1979 by Michael Aldrich. Michael Aldrich connected a 26 coloured consumer television by a telephone line to a real-time transaction processing computer. He called his new invention teleshopping, this is the forefather to our online shopping today. It even allows people who cant leave their homes, such as disabled people, elderly people, single parents and so much more. However, this godsend isnt as brilliant for local shop owners as it is for consumers; it can leave local economies decimated as people that used to be loyal customers move to services like Amazon and ASDA Direct. Not all is how it seems. Although online shopping can be accessible by many people, a lot of people still dont have access to it. 21.6% of UK residents dont have regular access to the internet. This has become a problem for many rural areas of the UK that seem to be neglected by ISPs (Internet Service Providers), low income areas also seem to have a smaller percent of online activity. In 2015 the UK government tried to combat this issue by passing a bill that was intended to provide everyone with at least 15 mbps (megabits per second) internet access for free. As of February 2017 the bill has disappeared. Free time The way we spend our free time has changed drastically over the last couple of decades. From the dawn of social media to the invention of complex graphically intense video games our choices of media consumption during our free time has vastly increased since the very first commercial computers were produced.   Websites like Twitter and YouTube have become the places where most will spend their free time. This has caused content creators commonly referred to as YouTubers, to make a living. Some even become millionaires. Video games have also become one of the most popular forms of peoples pass times, over 33 million out of the UKs 64 million residents play video games on a daily basis. Thats roughly 51% of the total populous, over half! So its no surprise that the British games market is worth a whopping  £4.193 billion as of 2015. Streaming websites are also among the most popular for internet users, they account for roughly 60% 70% of web traffic. They stream videos and other media like music to their users, some of the most frequently visited websites for streaming include: Netflix, Amazon Prime video and music, Spotify and Crunchyroll An anime streaming site. Communication Communication within the IT industry has shaped how we all communicate on a daily basis. From Emails to Short Message Service (SMS), daily communication has vastly changed from the days of letters and telegrams; this is thanks to the wide adoption of computers and mobile devices. This has only improved as technology has advanced to the internet vastly improved what mobile devices could do thus allowing us to communicate in better and faster ways. With the invention of 3G (short for 3rd Generation, in reference to it being the 3rd iteration of wireless mobile technology).   Users could surf the web from their devices. This newly found technology paved the way for smartphones, has the technology improved with H/HSDPA (High-Speed Downlink Packet Access) offering a theoretical 7.2 mbps connection speed and later H+HSPA+ (Evolved High-Speed Packet Access) offering an insanely fast theoretical speed of 168 mbps. Legal Impacts The legal impacts of IT have always been up for debate, whether it was the ability to copy games from cassette to cassette or the sudden unlimited access to bountiful amounts of information that came from the incredible creation that is the internet. In order to protect peoples data and information, many governments around the world implemented improved copyright and plagiarism laws. In the UK this law is called the Copyright, Designs and Patent Act 1998. Law lays down foundations to help copyright and patent holders to take legal action again those who steal their works. Hacking, Fraud and other malicious acts also came along with the dawn of commonly available personal computers. The UK government passed the Computer Misuse Act 1990, this bill outlined the dos and donts when it comes to computer use; accessing a computer without permission is considered a crime under the Computer Misuse Act.   Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   Ethical Impacts The ethical impacts of IT mainly from the constant documentation of our information from services such as Google and Amazon has been a heated topic for several years. Should we allow such services to store our personal information and information about items we like or search most often? Although there are many benefits in allowing such information to be stored which can help to form algorithms to better improve our online experiences with search engines and online shops. This can allow services such as Amazon target specific advertisements to be shown to us based on our interests and to have products recommended to us based on our past purchases. However, if this information were to reach the wrong hands, such as a fraudster, it could be extremely dangerous to the users whom data has been stolen. Another ethical question that comes to play with the use of IT is for those who dont have access to high-speed internet that may of us take for granted. For instance, many people who live in rural areas of the UK dont have access to broadband due to the vast distance between them and the telephone exchange. In some cases, even trying to install cables for rural areas are just impossible due to the high cost and low reward aspect of the area. For a broadband company it is more profitable to place expensive high-speed cables in densely populated urban areas since the vast amount of customers would allow the companies to recover their investments much quicker. There are solutions to this however, many mobile communication networks have started providing 4G internet access to those who cant get access to the internet or who have rather weak connections. Most of the time these solutions are cheap and quick to set up however the 800Mhz (megahertz) frequency band, previously used for analog ue television, used by most telecommunication companies although has far reach due to its small wavelength this has the negative effect of not having the ability to transmit as much data as a fibre optic cabling. Life before computers As much as it is hard for some of us who have grown up with and around this amazing technology, we must not forget that computers have not always been around. Even earlier versions of cameras have been around longer than computers. Video games, Instant messaging, Email, DVDs, Cassettes, Laserdiscs: There was a time when all of these werent even thought of. A time of newspapers and radio, vinyl disc and Classic music and Jazz. Going outside to play with friends, working for a sixpence, 240 pence to a pound, before the days of post decimalisation. I asked my Nan about what it was like growing up, what she would have liked to do when she left school. Getting a job as a typist working for the Ministry of Defence (MOD) was one of the flashiest jobs for women to get, everyone wanted it. Sustainability The sustainability of our modern technological position has been a question for many centuries. What can we do to help preserve our environment and sustain our current lifestyle? Recycling our old hardware and reusing the precious metals inside them can help us since it uses less energy to regain these metals than it does to mine and refine them. Another advantage to this is that metals are also a finite substance and we only have a set amount of it. Moving to a more sustainable energy source to power our homes and electronics is also a vital way to be stainable. Solar, wind and nuclear energy are the current candidates for us to replace our dependent on fossil fuels. All three of these present a positives and negatives but one thing they all have in common is their amount of pollution they produce or lack there of. PAGE 1 OF YOUR BLOG: Understand the impact of IT on individuals, communities and society. Impacts Social Impacts How we spend free time. Effects on local communities PAGE 2 OF YOUR BLOG: ECONOMIC IMPACTS Employment structure and working practices. Sustainability. PAGE 3 OF YOUR BLOG: Legal impacts Ownership, copyright and plagiarism PAGE 4 OF YOUR BLOG Ethical impacts Privacy of information PAGE 5 OF YOUR BLOG Activity from page 23 Life before computers investigate and write up in your own words.

Terri Schiavo A Case Study Of Euthanasia Philosophy Essay

Terri Schiavo A Case Study Of Euthanasia Philosophy Essay Euthanasia is a life-terminating process with means to end pain and suffering. However, sometimes the way euthanasia is performed can be painful in itself. Terri Schiavos case was a very high-profile one for many reasons, one of them being because of this particular issue. She was 26 years old when she collapsed in her home in Florida in 1990 from what seemed to be lack of oxygen. She was in a coma for two and half months before entering a vegetative state. What came after would prolong into a 15-year dispute between Schiavos husband and her family in trying to figure out what would be the most ethical thing to do. After Terri Schiavo entered the vegetative state, there were two different paths she could have continued onto. The first being death through euthanasia, while the second being living life and surviving with constant assistance and through artificial means. According to Diana Lynne in her article at http://www.wnd.com/?pageId=29516, however, the path to euthanasia was absolutely unnecessary. Schiavo was not drooling, which meant she was able to control her saliva and therefore would not need feeding tubes. She was not in a PVS, or a persistent vegetative state, because she very well recognized her environment and was able to interact with it. Nurses reportedly could distinguish her words through her difficulty to speak as she would say help me and Mommy. Herein laid the biggest argument- would Terri want to live a life like this? Her husband, Michael Schiavo, reported that Terri had stated herself that she would never want to live her life as a vegetable and would rather have someone put a stop to her suffering. There was, however, no written proof, or any at all for that matter, of this claim. Terris parents insisted that she would not want to be euthanized due to her religion-they said she was a devout Roman Catholic and was very religious. There was no evidence to support this claim either. Michael Schiavos intentions for Terri had been questioned since he lost all hope in her survival in 1992. His intentions were also suspicious because he had claimed that her reason for collapsing that night was due to her bulimic eating disorder-an issue that no one as aware she was dealing with. Another suspicious piece of evidence from the case was the fact that Terri had neck injuries when she was brought to the hospital that night she collapsed; her parents, the Schindlers, believe that Michael tried to strangle her that night. The first time he petitioned for Terris food tube to be removed in 1998, Michael Schiavo was already engaged to another woman whom he had had two children with. He was still married to Terri and was legally her guardian. The court ruled in favor of Michael Schiavo and decided to remove Terris feeding tube in April of 2001. Three days later the feeding tube was put back in due to appeals made by the Schindlers which led to a hold in his case. There was videotaped evidence that Terri Schiavo was indeed responding to her familys interactions and was not brain-dead or vegetative. Unfortunately, Michael Schiavos consistent efforts finally came through. On March 13th of 2005, the feeding tube was removed from Terri Schiavo. This would lead to her death on March 31st, 2005 from dehydration and starvation. For 18 days Terri was parched and starving, and this is how she was killed. I believe that Terri Schiavo was killed in a harmful, thoughtless act and there a quite a few moral theories present in ethics that can support this. In Immanuel Kants ethical theory, the categorical imperative states that we should not use people as a means to an end. Killing a person to put a stop to their suffering through euthanasia would be using them to another end. Also, Kant believed that what seems to be an act out of kindness could lead to a bad thing; Kant was not interested in acting through compassion but rather what were the right thing and the best thing to do for the best possible outcome. Kant also believed that the value of a human being was above all price. He was extremely against suicide because of this belief of the human life and its worth. Especially in this case, in which Terri Schiavo was not brain-dead and could rationalize and think, I believe Kant would agree with allowing her to continue her live and not euthanize her. John Stuart Mill would state that euthanasia was just because he believed that as long as no other being is hurt, a person can do anything he or she pleases. However, I would interpret this utilitarianistic view as one that could go against euthanasia. I believe that the death of any being can and will hurt another. The death of Terri Schiavo devastated her family and friends. Through her starvation and dehydration, her closest loved ones were also in pain because of what she had to go through. Another moral theory that would go against euthanasia is the natural law. This ethical theory states that the end never justifies the means. This theory is evidently against euthanasia because it clearly insinuates that doing evil is not justified simply because the outcome will be good, even if the intentions mean well. This theory would suggest that killing an innocent person is never morally right to do because the main intention of this natural law is to protect and preserve the innocent. Natural law also insists that God gave life and it is up to him whether or not it is a persons time for that life to end or not and he will take that life away when he pleases; natural law very much believes in the sanctity of life. The natural law theory is very much closely related to Christian ethics which would also be against euthanasia for many of the same reasons. This portion of ethics believes that humans do not have any right to take away life because it is up to God because he gave us life. It believes that euthanasia is murder and we are not to kill. Life is sacred and is meant to be lived until the persons natural death and is therefore taken away naturally by God. In terms of what is just, I do not believe Polemarchus would agree with the removal of Terri Schiavos feeding tube or any other incident involving euthanasia for that matter because of his belief of tit for tat. This belief of justice will overlook an act of evil if this kind of act was already done to that person committing it. This belief is also known as an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth. People in vegetative states in situations where they may be euthanized should not be if they are innocent people. Terri Schiavos case involved an involuntary euthanasia which means the person is not in a position to ask whether or not they want to die; the method of euthanasia in her case was passive, although the clear intention was for Terri to die. There are two other types of euthanasia: voluntary and nonvoluntary. In a voluntary case, the person asks to die and in a nonvoluntary case, the person does not want to die. The two types of methods in which euthanasia is performed are either passive or active. A passive method of euthanasia involves the cutting off of a treatment that the patient is on for a natural type of death while an active method of euthanasia is the opposite in which something is added in order to specifically end the patients life. This was the wrong thing to do especially because it was involuntary and it was therefore not certain that Terri Schiavo wished to die. It is reported that Terri Schiavo did not feel any pain during her 18 years in the hospital and because of th is, any argument supporting euthanasia using Terri Schiavo as an example is not reasonable. In any case, however, I believe that there is no such thing as a life not worth living. Its evident that every person would like to die with dignity and likely does not want to spend the last years of their life in a hospital but even though it is rare, it is possible to come out of a vegetative state. Also, according to all the philosophers and moral theories mentioned above, life is too sacred to not live, no matter what the circumstances

How does Hardy elicit sympathy for the three main characters? :: Free Essay Writer

How does Hardy elicit sympathy for the three main characters? Thomas Hardy has an extremely clever way of obtaining sympathy for a character. Hardy has specific ways to elicit sympathy by varying the level of sympathy he gives to character. He either gives sympathy to someone or takes it away from a character so more sorrow seems to be on another. He also uses powerful language to strengthen his points and finally he shows sorrow from a character’s point of view. He uses these techniques on the three main characters (Rhoda, Farmer Lodge and Gertrude) exceptionally well. We first see Farmer Lodge in his gig while bringing his new wife Gertrude to Holmstoke. He sees his son but completely ignores him: â€Å"One of the neighbourhood. I think he lives with his mother a mile or two off.† (Page 4) Gertrude asks Farmer Lodge who the boy is but he totally disregards his son and does not even acknowledge the child. He does not even tell his new wife that the child is his son. We give him no sympathy for this cruel act as he should have at least greeted the youngster. In comparison, Farmer Lodge’s son looks up to him: â€Å"Mr Lodge, he seemed pleased, and his waistcoat stuck out, and his great golden seals hung like a lord’s† (Page 70) It seems his son wants to get to know his father and holds him in high regard as his description of Farmer Lodge is rather flattering. Hardy has made Farmer Lodge seem unfeeling and not caring about his son. This is another reason not to feel sorry for Farmer Lodge. Farmer Lodge ignores Gertrude and her needs because of her withered arm: â€Å"Half a dozen years passed away, and Mr and Mrs Lodge’s married experience sank into prosiness, and worse.† (Page 19) She needed his help and support but still he ignored her. This is cruel as he marries her and then ignores her. It is wrong. Hardy portrays him to be bitter and heartless and therefore he receives no sympathy what so ever. At the end, Farmer Lodge’s character changes, he tries to make up for his previous behaviour and how he ignored his son by setting up a reformatory for boys: â€Å"he went away to Port-Bredy, at the other end of the county, living there in solitary lodgings till his death two years later of painless decline.† (Page 33) Hardy uses strong words such as â€Å"painless decline† which gives atmosphere about the solitude he lived in. It is clear that Farmer Lodge wants to make up for his previous behaviour by setting up the reformatory and giving a â€Å"small annuity† to Rhoda. How does Hardy elicit sympathy for the three main characters? :: Free Essay Writer How does Hardy elicit sympathy for the three main characters? Thomas Hardy has an extremely clever way of obtaining sympathy for a character. Hardy has specific ways to elicit sympathy by varying the level of sympathy he gives to character. He either gives sympathy to someone or takes it away from a character so more sorrow seems to be on another. He also uses powerful language to strengthen his points and finally he shows sorrow from a character’s point of view. He uses these techniques on the three main characters (Rhoda, Farmer Lodge and Gertrude) exceptionally well. We first see Farmer Lodge in his gig while bringing his new wife Gertrude to Holmstoke. He sees his son but completely ignores him: â€Å"One of the neighbourhood. I think he lives with his mother a mile or two off.† (Page 4) Gertrude asks Farmer Lodge who the boy is but he totally disregards his son and does not even acknowledge the child. He does not even tell his new wife that the child is his son. We give him no sympathy for this cruel act as he should have at least greeted the youngster. In comparison, Farmer Lodge’s son looks up to him: â€Å"Mr Lodge, he seemed pleased, and his waistcoat stuck out, and his great golden seals hung like a lord’s† (Page 70) It seems his son wants to get to know his father and holds him in high regard as his description of Farmer Lodge is rather flattering. Hardy has made Farmer Lodge seem unfeeling and not caring about his son. This is another reason not to feel sorry for Farmer Lodge. Farmer Lodge ignores Gertrude and her needs because of her withered arm: â€Å"Half a dozen years passed away, and Mr and Mrs Lodge’s married experience sank into prosiness, and worse.† (Page 19) She needed his help and support but still he ignored her. This is cruel as he marries her and then ignores her. It is wrong. Hardy portrays him to be bitter and heartless and therefore he receives no sympathy what so ever. At the end, Farmer Lodge’s character changes, he tries to make up for his previous behaviour and how he ignored his son by setting up a reformatory for boys: â€Å"he went away to Port-Bredy, at the other end of the county, living there in solitary lodgings till his death two years later of painless decline.† (Page 33) Hardy uses strong words such as â€Å"painless decline† which gives atmosphere about the solitude he lived in. It is clear that Farmer Lodge wants to make up for his previous behaviour by setting up the reformatory and giving a â€Å"small annuity† to Rhoda.

Emily Dickinson and Her Poetry Essays -- Dickinson Poet Poetry Essays

Emily Dickinson was ahead of her time in the way she wrote her poems. The poems she wrote had much more intelligence and background that the common person could comprehend and understand. People of all ages and critics loved her writings and their meanings, but disliked her original, bold style. Many critics restyled her poetry to their liking and are often so popular are put in books alongside Dickinson’s original poetry (Tate 1). She mainly wrote on nature. She also wrote about domestic activity, industry and warfare, economy and law. â€Å"Her scenes sometime create natural or social scenes but are more likely to create psychological landscapes, generalized scenes, or allegorical scenes.† She uses real places and actions to convey a certain idea or emotion in her poem. She blends allegory and symbolism, which is the reason for the complication in her poems because allegory and symbolism contradict each other (Diehl 18, 19). Dickinson did not name most of her poems. She named twenty-four of her poems, of which twenty-one of the poems were sent to friends. She set off other people’s poetry titles with quotation marks, but only capitalized the first word in her titles. Many critics believe she did not title most of her poetry because she was not planning on publishing her work. As Socrates said, â€Å"the knowledge of things is not devised from names†¦ no man would like to put himself or the education of his mind in the power of names†(Watts 130). Dickinson said that the speaker in all...

Theories of Early Learning

This paper consists of early theories of learning and development. It starts out with the basics of learning and development and ends with the theories of a few scientists. The first theory is ACT, introduced by John Anderson. ACT is an acronym for Adaptive Character of Thought. The second theory is The Elaboration Theory, introduced by Charles Reigeluth. Jean Piaget’s Genetic Epistemology appears in this paper, along with the Gestalt Theory, introduced by Max Wertheimer. B. F Skinner’s well known Operant Conditioning is covered. Lastly, but not least, is Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory. All of these theories are different, and shows how each individual scientist believes the children in their community learned and developed. Theories of Early Learning People may learn in many different ways. Many scientists have their own thoughts of how children learn, develop, and perceive the world around them. There are a few basic principles to learning that most people and scientists would agree on, though. The first is that a person can learn through the context of what he or she is reading or experiencing (Driscoll, 2006). When a person reads a sentence by itself, it may not make as much sense as it would if it had other sentences around it or if the person knew background information. People will try to make sense of such sentences with other experiences in their lives or understandings they have made about something else that could pertain to the sentence they just read. The conclusions they come up with could be completely different from the true meaning of the sentence. People need other information to make sense of what they are reading and learn what they should be learning. The second principle is that people learn by being active in what they are learning. If a person tells a child something, the child will most likely forget it. If a person shows a child something, the child is more likely to remember it. If a person involves a child, however, the child will understand it (Driscoll, 2006). The third principle is that people learn by working in groups. It tends to be easier for a child to work through something if that child has someone else’s perspective. Different strengths can be brought to the activity because each child has a different point of view and a different thought about what is happening with the activity. The fourth and final principle is that learning is reflective. Students do better the second time a situation is revealed to them if they get feedback from the first time they encountered the situation. If students know they spelled a word wrong on a spelling test, they most likely will not repeat the same mistake (Driscoll, 2006). Scientists have been studying the way they believe children and students learn. A scientist named John Anderson introduced ACT (Kearsley, 2011). ACT suggests that learning comes from three types of memory. The declarative memory stores information that is factual and what the child associated with that information. The procedural memory reminds children of how they behaved to the conditions or actions that they have stored in the declarative memory. The child’s mind thinks that if something happens, there is something specific to be done because of what happened. The working memory is the memory that the child uses every day. In this learning theory, children are generalized, making them use the responses in their procedural memory in other events or experiences. The responses are discriminated, to make them more specialized. The responses are later strengthened, to make it easier for the child to recall them. Research shows that facts are retrieved more easily and quickly if the responses are repeated many times (Cooper, 2009). A scientist known as Charles Reigeluth introduced The Elaboration Theory (Kearsley, 2011). The Elaboration Theory suggests that a child most easily learns a subject if the subject is broken down into smaller subjects that are less complex. This theory suggests that a person must teach a child to add before the child can be taught to multiply because the child must understand that multiplication is adding numerous times. The Elaboration Theory is a step-by-step process (University of South Alabama, 2009). Jean Piaget is a scientist who introduced Genetic Epistemology (Kearsley, 2011). Genetic Epistemology suggests that an infant has specific skills, known as schemas, which guide the child through the child’s environment. An example of a schema is that children know how to pick up their rattle and stick it to their mouth. When a child finds a parent’s watch, that child will transfer the schema to the new object. This is assimilation. When the child finds something too large to fit inside the child’s mouth it will develop a new schema. This is called accommodation. All these actions put together signify adaptation. When a child can adapt to its environment, it is easier for the child to understand it (Boeree, 2006). The next theory is the Gestalt Theory, introduced by Max Wertheimer (Kearsley, 2011). The Gestalt Theory revolves around shapes, patterns, and whole pictures. Wertheimer believed that for people to learn, they must use their brain intensely. He made pictures that were actually two pictures meshed into one. It made the brain of the person look more deeply into the picture to find each picture inside. These activities made it easier for children to problem solve in school (Atherton, 2010). B. F. Skinner introduced Operant Conditioning (Kearsley, 2011). Skinner believed that everything a person learned was from experience. Skinner thought that he could change the way a baby reacted to a rat, and it worked. He showed the baby a rat. The baby played with the rat and did not fear it. When Skinner gave the baby the rat a second time, he produced a loud noise that startled the baby. When Skinner showed the baby the rat once more, the baby was scared of it because the baby had associated the rat with the noise that startled him (Levine, 1999). Albert Bandura proposed the Social Learning Theory (Kearsley, 2011). Bandura thought children learned by observing, imitating, and modeling what other children do. He tested his theory by placing a child in a room alone, with toys and games in the room. He told the child he could play with anything that was in there. When he left the child did not move. Later he sent another child in the room. That child began to play with the toys and the games. When the second child left, the first child began to play with the toys. The first child observed the second, and then imitated his actions (Learning Theories, 2008). Many people have different ideas and perspectives about how people learn, develop, and behave. Everyone is involved with other people. Everyone spends time observing other people. People develop their own thoughts as to why the human race acts the way it does. All these theories are common because they all suggest that people’s environment, peers, and resources are the main contributions to how they learn and understand what is going on around them. References http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/piaget.html http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-3/learn.htmSocial Learning Theory (Bandura)

Communication and Customer Service Essay

The time that I was not satisfied with a service is the time I rented movies at the local video store. My problem had nothing to with the experience or how I was treated during my rental. My complaint came the day after when I returned the movies. When I return movies I always bring them back hours before they are due and I either put them in the back drop off or the front drop off, I rarely go into the store to return them. It was around 1pm when the movies were returned and later on that day I got a phone call from the video store around 7pm with a message that my rentals were late. I told the employee that I returned them in the back drop off and to check it. Well this same type of situation happened to me 3 weeks in a row. The 3rd time was the last straw so the next time I rented videos I made a complaint and told them how I felt and where I always drop the movies off when I return them. The complaint I made was delivered in a nice, peaceful verbal manner. Since then I have no problems with getting phone calls for movies that aren’t late. I spoke to the employee directly so therefor I didn’t send them an email about my complaint. If I did send an email it would be an assertive communication style email. It would be written professional and state my expectations of the company. I would not label or judge anyone or the company in any way in the email.

Human Resources Management and Job Design Essay

This has been the problem with also several blue chip companies. Are there other issues which leads to commitment and loyalty to stay on in companies? The organizations could not afford to lose key individuals for some matters related to job dissatisfaction and discontentment. In such a scenario â€Å"Organizational Behavior† becomes a very essential tool in shaping employee morale. Job Design becomes all the more important and is an avenue that could lead to overall job contentment. It could be made more enriching and appealing to the employees by incorporating suitable Human Resource and Behavioral concepts. The objective of this paper is to identify some of the state of the art and tested techniques in Human Resources Management that could make the job more enriching and interesting to the employees. It aims at â€Å"Quality of Work Life† where the emphasis is given to issues like Quality, Time, Commitment, Work Culture and Social Responsibility. WE have to act to ‘Realize Our Needs’. Access to technology helps in marching forward but people have to be told to contribute to develop to their full potential, utilize resources improve relationships and acquire knowledge. Duplication of efforts to gain increased productivity, continuous quality improvement and progress could be avoided. Sharing the resources between nations can do this. Importance should be given to self-sufficiency and efficiency, stimulating original thinking resulting in effectives of the system. Introduction Emphasis of Industrial Engineering with respect to Human Resource Management and Job Design are Ergonomics, Human Factors, Manufacturing Systems Engineering, Operations Research and Management. Experimental work in the field of Biomechanics, Human factors, Computer Integrated Manufacture, Process Control, Graphics, and Computation methods are done. Ergonomics and Human Factors includes biomechanics, man-machine systems, prevention of musculo-skeletal disorders, other industrial hygiene issues, and ergonomics and human factors issues in a aviation, space systems and rehabilitation. Manufacturing Systems Engineering includes computer-integrated manufacturing; the planning, design, and control of manufacturing systems; Computer Aided Design and Manufacturing; and the application of robotics, vision systems, and artificial intelligence in manufacturing. Operations Research includes deterministic and stochastic optimization; multi-criteria decision making; expert systems and artificial neural networks; modeling and analysis of system reliability; Total Quality Management; and the modeling, management, and simulation of manufacturing and service systems. Objective Aim of Human Resource Management to increase the awareness of the real power, to direct, to make decisions, to develop ethical systems, to enhance the lives of self & others and to understand that the systems should be made successful with active participation of all working partners. Process This can be achieved through the development of conceptual skills, entrepreneur skills, leadership skills, manageri al skills, technical skills and communicational skills. Focusing on effective leadership, efficient management process, productive motivation, economic manufacturing and service, required training requirement and of skills for excellence. By viewing the situation in the present perspective, by formulation of changing alternatives and by choosing the best change alternative. It can be dealt easily with each and every aspect of life with power, freedom and full self-expression. Areas of life are health, well-being, leisure, fun, relationships, career, family, plans for future, retirement, quality of life, living situation, home, religion, spirituality, finances, income, sex, self-confidence communication and enrollment. Ability to listen and be present, to take unreasonable actions, overcome fear of failure, and live an upset free life and think positively always with sense of joy & fulfillment and with unimpeachable integrity. Awareness of the real power is being present to what is happening now and being able to deal with full energy & commitment without any doubt or ambiguity in the mind in each and every aspect of our life. Organize To be organized keep things in the same place every time. Ask every one to do the same. Take them when required and place them back as soon as the work is over in the same order, plan in advance what all needs to be done; now, after 1hour, after 6 hours, after 10 hours, today, tomorrow, this week, next week, this month, next month, this year, next year, next five years and next ten years.